Business Strategy Report for H&M Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Strategy Report for H&M - Essay Example the UK fashion market in 1976, and eventually became one of the leaders in the UK fashion-apparel retailing market, with 234 stores across the country, and the second-biggest apparel retailer in the world. (H&M’s Annual Report, 2013) The fashion industry is one of the most vibrant and creative business sectors in the UK. It directly contributes nearly  £21 billion to the UK economy. (British Fashion Council, 2014) H&M is currently ranked as the second-biggest apparel retailer in the world, following the Inditex, the parent company of Zara. H&M states that it vision is that all its operations are run in a way that is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. (H&M, 2014) The company is helping to meet the needs of both present and future generations by supporting fundraising program, ensuring the working condition in its supply chain and continuously developing new and green materials in production. The main mission of H&M is to offer quality fashion at the best price. In its company report, H&M states numerous of times that quality is more than making sure that products meet or exceed consumers’ expectation. H&M is constantly working towards its vision and mission. And this is the key for its profit and growth. It is not rare to find high quality clothing or clothes at a low price within the fashionindustry. Therefore, by utilizingresources and depending on strong design team, H&M is combing the core competencies of quality, fashiondesign with a best price strategy, to ensure its competitiveness. The idea of the fashion industry is to spot the right trends on catwalks and have the items on shelves before your competitors do. This makes the rivalry level is high since there are a large number of similar retailers including both large and small firms. The rapid change in the industry leads firms constantly renewing their product to appeal to fickle customer bases as well. In addition, the loss of consuming interest on apparel caused by

PP0126 Learning Arena As A Learning E Essay Example for Free

PP0126 Learning Arena As A Learning E Essay Medical Assistant profession is only known in Malaysia. It is part of the medical profession creates by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia in the sixties to overcome the shortage of medical officer in the country. We need to go through three years training program conducted by our Ministry of Health in order to be a qualified as a Medical Assistant. My speciality is in Emergency and Trauma care management, with sixteen years working experiences in the Emergency Department (ETD) and currently attached to the ETD in one of the hospital located in central region. In this assignment I will discuss and explore how practice arena can assist in learning as well to identify the learning opportunity available for learners and how I integrate my professional role to develop health care profession competency. My focus will be on the factors of physical and social climate and how does it affect learning in my practice arena. Based on the theories of humanism and Androgogy compare with the concept suggested in the literature, I will come with my recommendation on how I am going to promote my practice arena into a more conducive learning environment. There are few factors or element that can affect or influence learning environment. The most important elements are physical environment, social climate and learning opportunities (Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2006) that I am focusing now. Discussing about the physical element, resources are among thing that we should considered within the placement. Ileris (2011) claimed the variety of opportunity and situation offer to learners is the most significant factors influencing the quality of practice arena as 1 learning environment. He further quotes that difference type of workplace offer different  learning environment with different learning opportunity. The emergency and trauma department or my practice arena cover one whole block and the facilities and services available encompassing a wide range of emergent trauma and non trauma condition, from the critically ill or severely injured to those with minor ailment. The scope include pre hospital care services, resuscitation and stabilisation, diagnosis and definitive care management, one stop crisis centre and medical coverage. The facilities available are dividing into zone ranging from a critical to  a non critical zone where patient management are triage according to the severity of illness. There are three main zones, one observation bay equipped with 5 beds, a procedure room for minor surgical procedures and a sterilisation unit for collecting and receiving sterile item from the central sterilisation department. Each zone or treatment areas are equipped with standard equipment for it functionalities inclusive of an emergency trolley, cardiac monitor and defibrillators, portable ventilators and airway management, radiography machine, ultra sound machine, electrocardiogram,  refrigerator and blood analyser machine. It provide a wide range of learning opportunity to learners and students to develops their skills ,knowledge and understanding of the role and function with the organisation( Evan et. al, 2006). However all these equipment needs speciality and skills to be operates and 2 learners need period of time to get familiar with the equipment. The department need to send learners for user training and courses before they can handle the machine. My practice arena is amongst the busiest place in the hospital compound. Even worse  when facing the incidence of mass casualties where every staffs busy with their own task. However it doesn’t mean that they have no time with the learner. They are actually a good role model for learner where they can work and learn at the same time. They are willing to shares their working experience, skills, knowledge and ideas with student or learners even though they are very with their tasks. In fact chaotic working environment is rich for learning because of large volume of patient of varying acuity and learner will take responsibility of their own learning, identifying gap in knowledge, seeing feedback  and working toward closing these gap. (Goldman et. al, 2009) Every zone is fully air conditioning and furnished with patient’s beds, trolleys and wheelchairs. We also have an access to internet and intranet where Learners will have the opportunity to access the heath information system, interaction between the instructors and as well among learners as it is the key point for good practice and learning expectation for each area (Severs and Pearson, 1999), (Ileris, 2011). But there are limitations as some of the equipment and facilities only can be use by professional  and expert and the use of internet has been block by the management from being access in an improper way and only involved with certain website, this may lead to frustration and conflict to extensive use in workplace learning (Ileris, 2011). We also 3 have teaching room or a seminar room with selection of books, journal and handout available which is accessible to learners. Apart from the facilities above my placement arena also have 2 unit of type A, 3 unit of type B and 5 unit of type C ambulances. They are all equipped with standard equipment and also link by the radio communication services. In order to be part of the ambulance services team, learner need to undergo basic training on the basic equipment available inside the ambulance and how to use radio communication system. They are attached with qualified personnel as a mentor who is in charge of the ambulance services. For the convenience of every staffs, student and even public, my placement arena offer excellent facilities such as rest room with television set, tea room and pantry, accessible wash room and toilet, emergency fire exit with fire extinguisher and waiting area provided with chairs and queue number system. Quinn (2007) states that this basic needs make learner feel secure and comfortable and enable them to concentrate in their learning. Nevertheless my placement area doesn’t have any skill laboratory where student can practice their skills and knowledge. However the higher management has planned to set it up in few years time for the benefit of all parties. 4 My practice arena offer a placement for student nurses, newly graduates medical assistant and medical students doing their internships and housemanship program from the nearby colleges and higher institution. In fact the facilities has been gazetted as one  of the teaching hospital by the government and the Ministry of Health Malaysia as a whole. Learners and student will need to be introduced to the new environment to get them off to a good start by establishing a sense of belonging, creating a welcoming learning environment, supplying information that will answer their question and removing any uncertainties once they reporting themselves for the placement. Gopee (2008) stated this as an essential and effective when new experience are linked to prior knowledge where it begin with familiarisation with the clinical setting, clinical specialism,  get to know with mentor and staffs and feeling that they are part of the team inorder to meet the learning needs and achievement of their practice objective. The availability of the multidisciplinary staffs ranging from the higher level management and clinician to a well trained paramedics (Goppe, 2008) form the basis of inter- professional learning and will be an advantage for the student to learned and adopted as their role model and mentors. West et. al (2007) highlight that the practice is not only the environment where services is delivered to client but also a learning area where  future and qualified practioner continually utilise the opportunity provide to them as an experience to facilitate their professional development. 5 It is an effort of every personnel to create the practice arena into an interesting and conducive place to learn. Fox (2009) describe learning environment as a place or setting where learning occur. This include physical setting, interpersonal and instructional characteristic that influence learner’s performance. The nature of learning environment is important in establishing an expansive learning area (Evan et. al, 2006)  but sometime it is difficult to achieve as to some leader it is not a priority and therefore there must be a balance against priority in order to improve learning. Hand(2006) suggest that placement should be of higher quality accompanied by improved teaching support to help student gain better practical skills. But a high standard ward with rigid task allocation, with hierarchical system exist are unlikely to meet student learning needs (Fretwell, 1980) Relationship between manager and subordinates and vice versa is another important aspect of social climate in learning environment. Hand (2006) stated that mutual respect, integrated and valued student, manager’s commitment, interactive communication, motivated employers, supportiveness and openness are among the element that contributing to a conducive learning environment. Chan (2001) highlight that inter personnel relationship between staffs are crucial in order to develop a positive learning environment. Hand (2006) described the relationship between teacher and learner must be genuine, non- threatening, lasting relationship and encourage learner to give feedback in order to promote learning and Nolan (1998) found out that learning  desire will reduce without supportive from learning arena. 6 My unit manager is very supportive and committed person, caring attitude and openness especially toward professional development, friendly, approachable and knowledgeable. He motivates the staffs by sending them for courses, workshops and seminar to upgrade their skills and knowledge, counselling and indirectly benefit student placement in the areas. I believe he is a role model in my placement areas. The success and fall of the placement as a conducive learning arena depend on the management, leadership style and the relationship which exist between the people, the  manager and the goals in the organisation (Weir et. al, 2010). Inorder to develop a positive learning environment, there must be a positive management style and interpersonal relationship among manager, staffs and learner. Fretwell (1988), Pembrey (1988) described ward manager as a key figure in the organisation in establishing and maintaining a ward atmosphere conducive learning environment and patient care environment as well. Practice area learning are mostly student centred learning where learner and student needs to participates and involve themselves in the activities design in the practice  area. Self awareness is therefore very important and Cook (1999), mention that many nurses educationist are focused on self awareness to get the learning opportunity in the practice area. In this way student are able to make judgement of their own and identify their strength and weakness in consistent to andragogy approach as self assessment which help them to develop awareness of their own standard of practice (Chambers, 1998). This can be in the form of formal and informal learning activities. In my placement area, student or learners will have the opportunity to involve themselves in  7 discussion, case presentation, in house courses and continuous medical education which is plan weekly for every qualified personnel. For pre registration student this is a good chance to get new ideas, knowledge and skills and for post registration it is professional refreshment. Spouse (2001) clarified that knowledge quickly become outdated as rapid pace of technology and to be more effective this continuous professional development should be carried out under the guidance of experience and knowledgeable colleagues with the evidence of attendances. The collaboration of one  department with other organisation and between unit and section in the department should be considered as one of the factors that influencing the provision of good experience within the placement. This is because exchange and sharing of ideas between these two different organisations happened to achieve the same goal. We have been discussed many factors influencing learning in my practice setting such as physical environment, social climate and learning opportunities available in my practice setting and this will definitely give a better output toward learning environment  in the placement arena. Although I have identified many of the learning opportunities but there are some limitation on the implementation especially on the resources. I have made some recommendation to be bringing forward to improve the placement arena in future. I believe that this can be fulfils if the higher level management, training institution, mentors as well learners themselves is really committed to make changes toward the excellence learning environment. To make the process going smoothly everybody should take parts and plays their role accordingly.

Effect of Air Bags on Child Fatalities

Effect of Air Bags on Child Fatalities Overview of the study Evidence following the suggestions for age-appropriate restraints as well as stern seat locations for kids travelling in the motor vehicles has been fine established. Though, evidence for the age-based suggestions regarding air bags as well as kids is lacking. Even though the NHTSA course of action for kids as well as air bags have been circulated extensively, the age (or body size) that finest describe when a childs additional danger of the injury or death from an air bag is replaced by benefit is unknown. Two initial studies suggested a link between air bags as well as childhood fatalities (defining kids as 0-12 years as well as 0-9 years of the age), but both analyses were limited by relatively small numbers of the fatalities, yielding statistically inconclusive results. Subsequent studies defined kids as 12 years of the age as well as provided more conclusive evidence for the link between air bags as well as death among right front seat passengers within this age range. Allison ( 2001) suggested that the increased mortality danger from air bags was most pronounced among right front seat passengers through age 10, becoming less pronounced from 11 to 14 years as well as turning to a net benefit for passengers 15 years of the age, but the results did not reach statistical significance. A more recent study examining differences in the air-bag effectiveness according to age as well as restraint use suggested a net increase in the danger of the death among child passengers 12 years of the age, but sample size limitations prevented definitive statements regarding the childhood age at net danger might change to no effect (or benefit) as well as the study did not assess markers of the body size. Durbin et al demonstrated that the danger of the injury (rather than death) among restrained kids 3 to 15 years of the age exposed to passenger air-bag deployment was twice that among front-seated kids not exposed to an air bag, with the danger of the injury being relatively constant among kids 3 to 8, 9 to 12, as well as 13 to 15 years of the age. We hypothesized that specific cut-off points in the age, height, as well as/or weight among kids used to define when the danger of the serious injury from the presence of a passenger air-bag changes from harmful to no effect (or beneficial), after adjustment for crash severity as well as other important crash factors. We tested this hypothesis with age, height, as well as weight as effect modifiers (interaction terms) of the link between the presence of a passenger air bag as well as serious injury among right front seat passengers 0 to 18 years of the age that is involved in the motor vehicle crashes (MVCs). Chapter Two: Literature Review The Politics of the Air Bag Safety: A Competition among Problem Definitions In light of the 121 deaths credited to the air bag deployments, considerably to children as well as adults of the small stature, recent policy debate has purposeful on altering present Federal automotive air bag regulations. A problem definition point of view is employ to identify the nature of this debate. (Ai Norton 2003) Utilizing a content analysis of the executive record of the one U.S. House as well as two U. S. Senate hearings, it is quarrel that four problem definitions exemplify the debate over air bag safety: behavioural, regulatory, technological, as well as corporate greed. (Allison 2001)Furthermore, it is argued that a problem definition perspective offers a better illustration of the recent changes to Federal air bag regulations than do pluralist, elitist, as well as principal-agent models. (Association for the Advancement Automotive Medicine 2001) Political discussion on policy issues are frequently portrayed as a disagreement over competing definitions of the social condition. (Braver Ferguson 1997)A problem definition offers the frame through that present conditions are supposed to be in the conflict with treasured social values. In this way, policy issues are socially constructed as well as communicated through the articulation of the shared definitions. (Braver, Whitfield Ferguson 1997) Problem definitions are significant to policy theory in the two ways. First, they pressure that issues rise to the public agenda. Definitions delivers a frame through that social conditions are perceived to be problematic as well as in the need of the government action. (Braver Whitfield 1998) Thus, the issues that are actively considered by government officials are in the part illustrated by the success of the definition competing for attention on a crowded agenda. (Barnard 1997) Further than illumination that concern is on the public agenda, the problem definition viewpoint also can assist in illustrating the outcome of the policy process. As political dialogue, the purpose of the problem definition is at once to give particulars, to explain, to advocate, as well as to persuade.(Berg 2000) Actors participate to have their definition of the social state frame the nature of the policy discussion. (Cummings 2001) A problem definition clears the survival of the public problem as well as the causes that it exists. The usefulness of the specific solution reasonably flows from the espoused set of the causes. In this manner, policy entrepreneurs utilize problem definitions to taper the variety of the options under consideration as well as to espouse a particular solution. (Calvert McCubbins 1989) Therefore, problem definition is often at the heart of the action itself, argues Allison (2001). A great deal of policymaking, in the fact, is preoccupied with whose definition would prevail (p. 98). Scholars have recognized a range of the characteristics that assist to illustrate the utility of the definition for structuring policy debate. In the hands of the accomplished policy entrepreneur, a problem definition, has possible solutions, as well as is well-matched with other definitions is a influential tool for influencing policy formation. Though, this position of the problem definitions has yet to be completely explored. (Cobb 1983) The concern of the air bag security offers an opportunity to look at the role of the problem definitions in the policy procedure as well as to test propositions implicit in the previous research. Deaths that have been accredited to air bag deployments have purposeful attention on the dangers linked with air bags as well as have resulted in the challenge to the wisdom of the Federal regulation necessitate that they be fixed in the motor vehicles. (Corneli 2000) A number of problem definitions have emerged in the debate in the effort to influence Federal policy. What are the mechanisms of the complete problem definition? What explanations are being used by policy entrepreneurs to persuade the substance of the government set of laws on air bags? Those definitions have been the most effective in the shaping new policy? Those definitions are likely to shape policy in the future? To deal with these questions we carry out a content analysis of the bureaucrat record of the three congressional hearings (two Senate, one House) held on the question of the air bag safety during 1996 as well as 1997. (Damsgaard 2001) The official statements as well as verbal remarks of the each contributor in the hearings were examined for the manner that the entity described (framed) the problem of the air bag safety. Also, present rules propagated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) give out as the policy answer to this concern. (Allison 2001) To test hypotheses about the influence of the problem definitions on policy formulation, the conten t of NHTSA rules will be compared with the dominant problem definitions articulated in the debate as carried out in the congressional hearings. (Coughlin 1994) Components of the Problem Definitions Complete problem definitions have several key components. First, definitions recognize a societal state that needs to be remedied through government act. (Dahl 1967)Second, key statistics as well as descriptions of the relevant events are offered as evidence to empirically demonstrate the perceived condition. In offering specific empirical evidence a problem definition draws attention to certain aspects of the condition while strategically ignoring others. This evidence also has the effect of the demonstrating that the condition being described is not an isolated event. (Dahl 1982)The definition provides a frame through that the information is interpreted as well as may lead to a very different interpretation of the data gleaned from a different problem definition. Third, the causes of this condition are identified to allocate blame or provide an illustration. It is this open causal theory which frequently distinguishes a number of definitions. Fourth, a complete definition clears a set of the results that would answer the supposed condition. (Damsgaard 2001) The solutions that are adopted reasonably follow from the articulated causal theory. Fifth, implicit in the reposed solutions is an acceptance of the key values or a desired end state. These values indicate what the condition should look like in the society. They also provide normative justification for the articulated causal theory as well as solutions. Sixth, to carry to life these values, symbols are used to perform the social condition that needs to be lectured. Symbols are substance that is gifted with importance that is not inbuilt in the entity itself that individuals use to sum up, condense, as well as simplify complex phenomena. (Decker 1984) Symbols not only help to converse other than it also builds understanding for a specific perspective. Entrepreneurs use symbols to persuade others to accept the basic assumptions of the problem definition. As Braver (1997) suggests, symbolic representation is the essence of the problem definition in the politics (p. 137). Air Bag Safety Problem Definitions In 1984, the U.S. Department of the Transportation needed that front seats in the motor vehicles be capable of with automatic occupant safety devices (i.e air bags) in its place of the, or in the accumulation to, physical lap as well as shoulder belts. In 1991, Congress focussed the NHTSA to adjust this standard to necessitate an inflatable restraint (i.e., air bag) when it passed the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) (P.L. 102-240). The Act required that air bags be put in the 95% of the cars by model year 1997 as well as in the 100% by model year 1998. Also, installation of the air bags was essential in the 80% of the light trucks in the model year 1998 as well as in the 100% by model year 1999. (Epidemiology 2002) Earlier than air bags were completely installed in the automobile fleet as focussed under the ISTEA, deaths to small children as well as women of the small stature focused attention on the dangers associated with air bag use. The NHTSA has announced 121 deaths attributable to the deployment of the air bags since 1990. In some cases, these crashes happened at speeds so low that only slight injuries would have resulted had an air bag not deployed. (Glass 2000)In reaction, Congress held three hearings to deal with the dangers of the air bags, as well as the NHTSA has concerned four modifications to its regulations in an effort to overcome the probability of the future air bag deaths. Thus, current policy debate has focused on modifying present Federal air bag guidelines even before the ISTEAs directive was completely put into practice. (Grisoni 2000) Manufacturers have installed some of the advanced technologies that is needed to comply with the advanced air bag rule in certain vehicles that are on the market today. (See table 1.) Manufacturers and companies that produce air bags are working on the development of other needed advanced technologies, with the aim of having them ready for installation in vehicles by September 2003, as required. Advanced air bag systems installed in future vehicles that are much more sophisticated than the conventional air bag systems in todays vehicles, because they will be capable of tailoring air bag deployment to characteristics of the front seat occupants as well as crash severity. Conventional frontal air bag systems deploy the air bags with a single level of inflation output for all crashes that exceed a predetermined severity threshold. (Ai Norton 2003)These systems generally consist of separate components designed to work together: crash sensors, a control module, and a driver and passenger inflator and air bag. The crash sensors and control module are typically located in one unit within the passenger compartment; the unit is often mounted within the floor between the driver and the passenger. (Allison 2001) The crash sensors detect the occurrence and severity of crashes and provide this input to the control module. The control module evaluates inputs from the sensors. If the cont rol module determines that a crash has occurred that exceeds the severity threshold, it then sends a triggering signal to the inflators to deploy the air bags. (Association for the Advancement Automotive Medicine 2001)The inflators and air bags are packaged together in air bag modules, which are located in the steering wheel on the driver side and in the instrument panel on the passenger side. Upon receiving a triggering signal from the control module, inflators generate or release gases that rapidly fill the air bags, generally within 1/20 of a second after impact. The purpose of the inflated air bags is to provide protective cushioning between the occupants and the steering wheel, instrument panel, and windshield. However, the single stage inflators in most vehicles today, in some cases, provide more inflation power than necessary because they fill the air bags with one level of output when deployed, regardless of the types of occupants requiring protection or the degree of severi ty of the crash. (Braver Ferguson 1997) Future frontal air bag systems designed to meet the performance requirements of NHTSAs advanced air bag rule may have additional features that will allow the deployment of the air bags to adapt to characteristics of the front seat occupants as well as different crash situations. Auto manufacturers anticipate that two new components may be needed to meet the rules requirements: occupant classification sensors and multistage inflators. (Braver 1998) Occupant classification sensors may provide an additional input to the control module to detect different types of occupants and whether or not they are belted. (Braver, Whitfield Ferguson 1997) For example, manufacturers anticipate installing sensors that is able to identify whether the front passenger seat is occupied by an infant in a rear-facing child seat, a child, or an adult. (Braver Whitfield 1998)Multistage inflators, which will replace single-stage inflators, may provide varying levels of inflation output that can be tailored to characteristics of the driver and front seat passenger as well as different crash scenarios. Deployment options could include no deployment, low-level output, and high-level output, as well as additional levels of deployment between the low- and high-output stages. (Epidemiology 2002)While the occupant classification sensors and multistage inflators are the key new features of the advanced air bag systems envisioned by auto manufacturers, other components may also be improved. (Barnard 1997)For example, manufacturers anticipate that these systems include crash sensors that can more precisely discriminate among different types of crashes (such as a crash into a rigid concrete wall versus a crash with another car), control modules that can process the additional inputs provided by crash and occupant sensors and make more accurate and timely deployment decisions, and air bag designs that allows the bag to deploy less aggressively. (Berg 2000) These advanced air bag systems are designe d to reduce the likelihood of the types of fatalities previously caused by air bag deployments. For example, such systems would deactivate the passenger air bag or deploy it at a low level if the passenger seat is occupied by an infant or small child. (Cummings 2001) These systems may also adjust air bag deployment if the driver or passenger is a small adult. Some vehicles on the U.S. market today have frontal air bag systems with multistage inflators and some other advanced features, such as seat belt usage sensors and improved air bag designs. (Calvert McCubbins 1989)However, no vehicles currently on the market have air bag systems with all the features manufacturers believe are needed to fulfil the requirements of the advanced air bag rule. In particular, no vehicles currently have frontal air bag systems with occupant classification sensors that can distinguish among child seats, children, or adults. (Cobb 1983) Manufacturers plan to continue making improvements in existing technologies for crash sensors, control modules, inflators, and air bags to comply with the advanced air bag rule. Manufacturers and suppliers are working on improving the ability of crash sensing systems to differentiate levels of crash severity and types of crashes. As part of this effort, manufacturers plan to increase the use of multipoint crash sensing systems. (Corneli 2000)Manufacturers and suppliers are also developing more complex computational systems to be incorporated into control modules, in order to allow them to process the additional inputs in advanced air bag systems and to make accurate and timely decisions regarding deployment outputs. (Coughlin 1994) Behavioral Definition Under the behavioural definition, atmosphere bags are touted as a productive machine vehicle safety device. Federal regulations requiring the facility of atmosphere bags in the machine vehicle fleet have helped have American machine vehicles safer for occupants. (Dahl 1967) To exemplify this perception, proponents of the behavioural definition offering estimates of the amount of lives that have been saved, and the amount of injuries that have been averted, by atmosphere bags. For instance, Dr. Ricardo Martinez (NHTSA) testified that [a]s of April 15, 1997, much than 1,900 drivers and passengers are awake because of atmosphere bags. About 600 were saved in 1996 only. (Damsgaard 2001) Deaths from atmosphere suitcase deployments are sad cases, and steps must be taken to guarantee that they do not happen in the future. But these deaths must be understood in the larger circumstance of traffic safety. (Damsgaard 2001) It is significant to recall that over 40,000 folk perish in machine vehicle crashes each year. The deaths traceable to broadcast suitcase deployments are tiny in amount when compared with the amount of lives that have been protected by atmosphere bags. Senator Gorton stated that atmosphere bag-related deaths are few in comparison with the amount of lives saved, or when compared to the 3,300 children killed in automobile accidents every year. (Decker 1984)In this manner the behavioural definition downplays the meaning of the deaths caused by atmosphere bags. The causal hypothesis for this definition suggests that the origin of the trouble is the conduct of the vehicle occupants themselves. (Epidemiology 2002) Occupants are depicted as placing themselves at danger by positioning themselves overly tight to the atmosphere suitcase at the moment of deployment or by being improperly belted. In mention to the children who have died, Martinez stated: Last year, about 721001121220f all the children who were killed in the frontal place [of] an auto were riding unbridled (Glass 2000 p59)In most cases broadcast suitcase fatalities could well be averted by the appropriate consumption of place belts and placing inexperienced children in the back place off from atmosphere bags entirely. [T]he behavioural issues, where, how, somebody sits, [are] ever going to be one of the principal determinants of living and death in the outcome of a wreck. (Grisoni 2000 p36) To exemplify the behavioural part of this matter, the place belt utilization pace of American machine vehicle passengers is compared with that experienced in new nations. Seat belt utilization rates in Canada and Australia are offered as benchmark s against which the U. S. experience is compared. (Ai Norton 2003) For example, Canada and Australia are credited with belt utilization rates of 90 0x0.002fb0804a29p-1022nd 95%, respectively; whereas the United States experiences a pace of 68. The correlation between belt consumption rates and atmosphere suitcase deaths is noted as Canada has had simply two or three fatalities attributed to broadcast suitcase deployments. If the conduct of machine vehicle occupants is causing the unfavourable consequences, so tools that change this conduct are the proper solutions. In the brief condition, behavioural changes are the almost practical [cure] and would take the almost prompt welfare. Three tools to achieve a difference in conduct are increased national training, improved resident security laws, and high-visibility enforcement of these laws. (Allison 2001 p44) The values tacit in these behavioural solutions are general national safety, private obligation, and societal economical efficiency. (Association for the Advancement Automotive Medicine 2001)Because deaths happen in situations where the person is improperly situated or restrained, the person bears the obligation for altering the conduct that places them in risk. As Martinez testified: No safety device is a cure-all; finally, drivers and passengers must go obligation for their own safety. To increase passionate consequence for these arguments, proponents provide respective depictions of the safety benefits of atmosphere bags. A woman is brought before a congressional hearing to say her tale about how an atmosphere suitcase saved her living. We a-e reminded that the lives saved are parents and grandparents. Videos indicate how atmosphere bags defend crash examination dummies in staged crashes. (Braver Ferguson 1997 p128) In each lawsuit these symbols assist dramatize the technological and statistical arguments about the consequences of irresponsible conduct that induce the deaths traceable to broadcast suitcase deployment. (Braver, Whitfield Ferguson 1997) Regulatory Definition Proponents of the restrictive definition admit the safety benefits of atmosphere bags, but the dangers of atmosphere bags are more outstanding than in the behavioural definition. The circumstance that is described is one where atmosphere bags make easily, but individuals are being injured and some die needlessly. To back this portrayal of the circumstance, statistics are cited that describe the amount of children and occupants who have died payable to broadcast suitcase deployments. But it is pointed away that insignificant injuries are the more popular outcome. (Braver Whitfield 1998) To exemplify the general potency of atmosphere bags, it is estimated that there have been over 1 million atmosphere suitcase deployments. In light of this whole amount, the industry is not putting away a faulty merchandise, but atmosphere bags surely can be improved. Also, it is noted that these deaths are occurring at a moment when Americans are buckling upward more now than always. Seat belt utilization rates are used to identify the circumstance but are interpreted in a distinct circumstance than under the behavioural definition. The reason of the circumstance is outdated and rigid regime rule. After describing the death of a 1-year-old daughter in his country, Senator Dirk Kempthorne characterized Federal rule as follows Is Alexandras death a disaster? Yes. Is this disaster the outcome of regime rule? Yes. Is this rule killing children? Yes. It is argued that automotive manufacturers are required to play rigid regulations when designing atmosphere bags. In specific, Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 208 is the principal perpetrator. This measure requires atmosphere bags to defend the median grownup male, who is unbelted, in a head-on wreck at 30 miles per minute. In light of statistics indicating that most Americans now crumple upward, the unbelted examination is outdated. (Barnard 1997) More significantly, to be in conformity with this rule. atmosphere bags must deploy at a personnel equivalent to 200 miles per minute. Such higher deployment forces are in surplus of what it would go to defend children and occupants wearing place belts, and still unbelted occupants. Standard No. 208 is particularly unacceptable because by protecting individuals who in most cases are violating country place belt laws (i. e. , are unbelted), manufacturers know that they must put the older, tiny women, and particularly children at greater danger. As Senator Kempthorne comments: [Standard no. 208] says, in gist, lawbreakers who do not don place belts will be protected. (Berg 2000 p67)But it may be at the price of your children. Not simply is there worry about the safety implications of Standard No. 208 but too the liability manufacturers may hold. We think that manufacturers should not be subjected to merchandise liability danger when they are responding in better religion to a Federal authorization. (Cummings 2001) The resolution that emanates from this causal hypothesis is an alteration in Federal rule. In the brief condition it is recommended that Standard No. 208 be amended to allow manufacturers to depower atmosphere bags (i. e. , cut the volatile accusation for deployment. Depowering would cut the danger that occupants confront when an atmosphere suitcase deploys. (Calvert McCubbins 1989) Ultimately, the more suitable resolution is the liquidation of the unbelted examination entirely so manufacturers could produce a safer merchandise. (Cobb 1983) The security of the almost susceptible occupants in machine vehicles (i. e. , children, women of tiny height, and the older) is expressly espoused by this definition. Another value apparent in the proposed solutions is maker self-reliance or pattern flexibility. More tacit in this definition are values placed on legitimate conduct (i. e., wearing place belts) and the avoidance of maker merchandise liability. (Corneli 2000) Common symbols engaged to produce sustain for this definition are susceptible infant passengers as well as outmoded, nonflexible regulation. Proponents of this definition let alone a direct critique of Federal regulators. As a substitute, their ire is determined on the regulation itself that is unfashionable or misguided. As this difference in symbols among the regulation as well as the regulator may seem minor, it allows sustained cooperation among the regulators as well as those espousing this regulatory definition. (Dahl 1967) Technological Definition The technological problem definition outlooks the state from the viewpoint of the young children as well as people of small stature who are exposed to too much danger. As air bags have safety benefits, the technological definition focal points on the negative costs of air bags, that are a more serious problem than depicted by either the behavioural or authoritarian definitions. (Coughlin 1994) To reveal the amount of this problem, the amount of fatalities is a key statistic that is referenced. Moreover, the number of air bags in employ, both driver as well as passenger side, are recognized to exemplify the prevalence of air bags in todays automobile fleet. As Jim Hall (National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)) gives evidence, [w]e add another 1 million vehicles each month with air bag technology that is not protected for everybody, as well as specially not for children. This marker assists to demonstrate that the problem is one that potentially faces a large segment of the population. (Dahl 1982) Nothing like the other definitions, it is the technology that is the major cause of the deaths. The technology is described as crude; comparable to a one-size-fits-all piece of clothing. What creates one individual secure, though, will not essentially offer the same amount of safety to the next occupant. As a substitute of sensing the size of an individual, whether or not the person is belted, or whether a child safety seat is there, todays generation of air bags deploy with one consistent force. This is why persons of small stature as well as young children are placed at danger during air bag deployment. Insufficient research as well as development has been mannered to create the next generation of air bags that will decrease the danger to smaller occupants. (Damsgaard 2001) Obviously, the solution is to develop air bags that deploy with forces that are customized to the occupant as well as the conditions of the crash. Advanced technology holds the answer to improving air bag safety. These []smart air bags will offer greater safety remunerations than existing ones without the amplified exposure to danger that young children as well as occupants of small stature currently face. As these technological growths are not directly available, short-term solutions comprise of depowering, installing on-off switches, as well as deactivation on demand. The last two of these short-term solutions offer the resident with the alternative of using the active technology. (Decker 1984) A number of proponents imply that government regulation desires to be ratifies to motivate producers to expand smart bags. In reference to setting government standards pertaining to neat technologies in the future, Mr. Hall stated: â€Å"I think the economic thoughts are the actuality here, Senator, as well as the automobile manufacturers, until the Federal government sets the standard, are not going to initiate the changes that are required.† (Epidemiology 2002 p71) Charles H. Pully (Automotive Restraints Council) went further as well as testified: (Glass 2000 p89) â€Å"So when will the sophisticated smart restraint organism [be] available? If we have aggressive targets set, the 2000 model year is not unreasonable. Thats the 1999 calendar year.† (Grisoni 2000 p164) These solutions unreservedly worth technology, as future advances will make the motor vehicle an still safer means of transportation. (Ai Norton 2003)Additionally, passive protection is valued, as the final goal is to create an air bag that suggests safety reimbursements to all occupants without any responsibility positioned on the occupant to make sure proper usage. (Braver, Whitfield Ferguson 1997)Outmoded as well as hazardous technology is employed as an efficient symbol to heighten awareness for creating new technology. The present generation is referred to as dumb` air bags, whilst the new as well as improved generation is smart` technology. (Calvert McCubbins 1989) Corporate Greed Definition Under the corporate greed definition we are faced with an emergency or crisis. It is not that occupants are inadvertently dying, it is that air bags are killing people. In particular, air bags are killing young children. Even though it is acknowledged that some small women as well as senior citizens have died as a result of air bag deployments, it is the death of the child that is the focus of this description. (Epidemiology 2002) As confirmation to validate this depiction, the number of children whose deaths have been credited to air bag deployments is obtainable. Their ages are identified as well as the circumstances surrounding their death. Frequently presented is a description of the way in that the air bag caused the death. These are children who were struck in the face by air bags, all in low speed collisions in that normally they would have survived. (Corneli 2000)Approximation of future child losses due to air bag deployments is also offered. (Damsgaard 2001) Air bags are killing twice as a lot of children as they are saving, as well as the most current projection that I have seen from NHTSA is that air bags will kill 128 children a year, ab

Economic And Monetary Union Of Europe :: essays research papers

Economic and Monetary Union of Europe   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main reason for creating a European Market was the growing international competitiveness. In the mid of the eighties the European countries recognized that in the long run the national economies alone won't be able to compete against countries like the US, Japan and the new industrial centers in East Asia. The biggest advantage of the European integration is the unique chance of causing significant economic growth in the member countries by abolishing all kinds of barriers e.g. customs controls, trade restrictions, liberation of the movement of capital, tax harmonization, and by the opening of the financial market, a common trade policy, a common service market, common legal protection of companies and so on.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The two countries who support the European integration most (at least their governments) are Germany and France. One reason therefore might be that both countries have a dramatic increase in unemployment rate within the past few years. In Baden-Wà ¼rttemberg for example, the area where I am from, the unemployment rate has gone up from about 4% in 1992 to around 9% nowadays. Most likely Mr. Chirac's and Mr. Kohl's only solution concerning the unemployment is a fully integrated economy which for sure would create new jobs in Europe. The German population, however, is scared that a United Europe would create new jobs only in low wage countries like e.g. Portugal. Many think that a European market with no barriers would would even cause â€Å"job hollowing out† of Germany. Moreover the German population likes the strength of the D-Mark and is worried that a single European currency would be weaker. As a result of this many Germans change their money into Swiss Francs. So far Switzerland has done quite well by not taking place in all events available. One reason why they are better off is that they didn't take place neither in World War I nor in World war II and therefore didn't have to rebuild everything.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some people expect that in a Unified Europe the standard of living in the richer countries will decrease while the people in poorer countries will fare better. One professor of mine once said: â€Å"Somebody must pay for the European Integration. Most likely this will be the richer countries like us. It was the same with the German Unification†. This shows that even some very educated people in Germany are skeptical concerning the new Europe. The light poll at the last election of the European parliament seems to be showing that the German population is not that much interested in Europe. The average worker/person if living in Germany or any other European country is not

Cultural Dilemma in the US Postal Service Essay

There are numerous cultural differences in our societies as a result of the numerous diverse cultures that people belong to. Each culture has its own ways of doing things with different cultural norms, values, perceptions, as well as behaviors. People from certain cultures will practice the values, norms and perceptions that their cultures belief in and therefore will end up having difficulties when interacting with people from different cultures who will have differing cultural norms, values and perceptions. These cultural differences are manifested in the workplace as different people from different cultures come together to work together for the common goal of the institution or organization they work for. Since our cultural values and norms influence our individual understandings and perceptions, people will react differently towards events and circumstances that could occur within us and in the environment. These differences in perceptions will affect how employees within an organization will interact with each other and work in harmony so as to satisfy the needs of the organization’s stakeholders. As such, cultural differences are a major concern for managers within organizations as they could help the organization achieve its objectives or hinder it from achieving them. The objectives of an organization are set in place by its stakeholders who have invested in the organization in one way or the other and expect to gain from such an investment in future. It is therefore the responsibility of managers to find a way in which the employees within an organization can work together in a seamless manner despite their differences in culture so as to ensure the organization operates continually for the common good of all stakeholders. The United States Postal Service The Postal Service is an agency authorized by the constitution of the United States and is responsible for the provision of postal services to the whole of the United States. Established in 1775 in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin through the enactment of a decree passed by the second continental congress, it experienced minimal growth and was later transformed in to its current form as an independent organization through the signing of the postal reorganization act of 1970 by President Nixon. As an independent organization, the postal service is self sufficient and does not rely on taxpayer’s money for its operations. The Postal Service’s mission is to offer the American people with trusted wide-reaching postal services that are at affordable prices. As such, the Postal Service is the only delivery service within the United States with the responsibility of providing all of the various features of a universal postal service at reasonably priced rates. The Postal Service conveys about 660 million mails to about 142 million delivery spot around the United States. Although the postal service enjoys a monopoly as contained in Article I, (8), (7) of the Constitution that grants the Postal Service with the special right to make delivery of letters in addition to the power to restrict the access to mailbox that are exclusively meant for mail. Its major competitors are United Parcel Service and FedEx. The postal service manages 32,741 post offices within the United States with a labor force of about 656,000 employees. Cultural differences of management and how they affect the US Postal Service The United States is a country that is full of cultural diversity with different cultural practices based on the numerous ethnic groups that live in the United States. The employees working in the postal service are drawn from these different cultural groups. As such, managers at the postal service have to deal with these differences effectively so as to ensure continues success of the organization. In doing so, managers need to be aware of and understand the seven dimensions of culture developed by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner detailed in their book Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business. Below is a discussion of these seven dimensions. Universalism v/s Particularism This dimension is based on the view of how a culture perceives rules and relationships. Cultures that embrace universalism hold the belief that general rules, values, codes, norms and standards take preference over other particular needs, claims of friendship and other relations. In a society that is universalistic, the rules usually apply equally to all of the members of the universe (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Exceptions to these rules are deemed as to weaken them. Universalism is based on finding rules that take a broad and general picture. In the event that there lacks a rule that fits for accomplishing something, universalism advocates for taking the alternative of establishing the most appropriate rule. Cultures that embrace Particularism perceive the ideal culture as one that is based on human friendship, and intimate relationships . People in these cultures view the spirit of the law as being more significant than the letter of the law. This has the effect that when the rules within a culture take a perfect fit, people in such a culture will judge the case based on the advantages of the law instead of attempting to force the rule to fit. Rules and regulations within particularistic cultures merely codify how people are supposed to relate to one another. Individualism v/s Communitarianism This dimension is based on the view of how members of a culture functions, whether in groups or as individuals. Individualism has a basis on rights that appertain to an individual. This is usually experienced in communities that have loose ties connecting their members resulting in an expectation of individuals to look after themselves. Individualism is aimed at giving individuals the right to personal space as well as the freedom of doing things as per individual liking (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). It permits each individual to develop or fail on an individual basis, as well as perceiving group-focus as striping the person of their absolute rights. Individualistic cultures are more egotistical and give emphasis to their personal goals. People resulting from individualistic cultures have a propensity of thinking only on personal basis. Communitarianism or collectivism is based on rights that appertain to a group. Collective cultures usually place a lot of emphasize on groups and are more concerned with the whole rather than on the single individual. Harmony as well as loyalty within a group are very imperative and ought to be maintained always (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Confrontations of any kind are highly avoided with people using expressions and phrases that would describe an argument in less negative manner. Saying no to others is considered to be wrong and deemed as a way of destroying the harmony found within these groups. Neutral v/s Emotional Emotional or neutral perspectives are used in the description of how cultures articulate their emotions. Emotional cultures articulate their emotions in a natural way (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This is witnessed in reactions that occur instantly through verbal and/or non-verbal means such as mimic as well as body signals. Members of the emotional culture unlike those in the neutral culture display a tendency of overreaction creating scenes. Emotional cultures are usually focused on the individual and rarely on the object or position of discussion. It is considered to be alright for one to use emotional intelligence when making decisions. It is also okay for people to show various forms of physical contact while in public and during the communication process. The neutral culture tends to avoid displaying emotions publically. This is based on the fact that neutral cultures do not reveal what they are thinking in a way that is more precise as well as direct (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This is an aspect that has the likelihood of leading to misunderstandings. This is because emotions of a certain kind may not necessarily demonstrate a certain situation. Neutral cultures usually appear to be rather reserved, an aspect that cannot be viewed as an indication of their disinterest or boredom. This appearance of reservation is based on lack of emotional tone. On a general perspective they harbor feelings of discomfort over contact in public resulting in a mode of communication that is more subtle thus making it hard for members of another culture to understand. Specific vs. diffuse Specific cultures are those that usually have a small area reserved for privacy and its separated from the public life. People in these societies have many interactions with the outside world and are constantly involved in such activities such as socializing in various areas that involve many people. People from these cultures have a rather small amount of privacy preferring to share there interests with others who are within their groups of socialization (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). People from such a culture deal with specifics and will view the whole as a sum of these specific parts. The life of an individual is divided into several specific parts and one deals with one part at a time. Conversely, diffuse cultures are usually concerned with maintaining people’s privacy. People in these cultures will avoid any kind of confrontations in the public and have a high degree of privacy preferring to share just a small amount of their private life with other people especially strangers (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). People from diffuse cultures usually start with the whole before going down to the various parts that make it up. Each of the parts is viewed in the viewpoint of the whole total with all of these parts being related to one another. These people prefer attributes and behaviors that help build trust and honesty fostering the building of strong relationships. Achievement vs. ascription This dimension is concerned with the status accorded to individuals within cultures. In cultures that are achievement oriented, the status of an individual is based on the accomplishments that one has achieved and accomplished. Individuals from these cultures gain their status from the various things that they have accomplished on their own (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). A person with such a status has to show prove of what he or she is worth with the various powerful positions within the culture being accorded to people who have certain accomplishments. In cultures that are ascription oriented, the status of an individual is based on the groups that one is associated with. In ascriptive societies, individuals gain their status mainly through birth, gender, wealth, or age (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). A person who has an ascribed status does not necessarily have to accomplish something so as to preserve his status since his or her status is accorded based on his or her being. Sequential vs. synchronic This dimension is concerned with the attitude of a culture towards time. People who are from sequential cultures tend to carry out one thing at a time in a sequential manner . They examine time as distinct, and made up of consecutive divisions which are both tangible and divisible (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). People from these cultures strongly prefer to plan for their time and will keep to these plans once they made them so as to aid in implementation. Any time commitments that one might have are usually taken seriously and staying on schedule is considered an important aspect of time management. Sequential people in particular place a lot of importance on the value of completing of tasks. Conversely, people from cultures that are synchronic usually perform several tasks at a time. These cultures view time is a constant flow that allows many things and tasks to be carried out simultaneously (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). Time is perceived as a force that one can not be able to contain or control. Time is also regarded as flexible as well as intangible. Time commitments are often desirable but not absolute with plans that people could be having being easily changed. Internal vs. external control This dimension is concerned with the attitude of a culture towards the environment. In internal cultures, people usually posses a mechanistic outlook of nature. They perceive nature as an intricate machine and which can be directed if one has the correct expertise needed to do so. People from these societies do not believe in the existence of luck or any form of predestination (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). These people are directed towards the inside as one’s personal decision is usually deemed to be the starting position for each action that they will do. They also believe that one can live the kind of life that he or she wants to live if that are in a position to take advantage of the numerous opportunities that might come on the way. In addition, they believe that man is capable of dominating nature if he wishes to do so. . In external cultures, people usually posses an organic outlook of nature. They perceive that mankind is one of the forces of nature and should therefore operate in one accord and harmoniously with the rest of the environment. These cultures hold the believe that man should subdue to nature as well as get along with the other forces existing within the environment (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). These people do not believe in their ability of shaping their own destiny but rather hypothesize that nature moves in rather mysterious ways hence one can not never know what is going to happen in the future. As such, their actions are directed externally to the environment and are adapted to the external circumstances surrounding them. Conclusion Based on these seven dimensions, the American culture is individualistic, achievement, emotional, internal, sequential, universalistic, and specific. These dimensions have several implications that managers need to consider in order to make sure that the employees are able to work in a manner that benefits the organization as well as themselves especially in a large organization such as the postal service that employs over 600, 000 employees. In addition, due to the cultural diversity present in the United States and the growth of globalization, there are numerous citizens from different cultures in the United States that do not follow these seven dimensions of the American culture and therefore follow different aspects of the seven dimensions. With the postal service being a national agency that offers employment to all citizens irrespective of their cultural backgrounds, managers need to ensure that the employees are able to work in a manner that benefits the organization. This will require the managers to build cultural understanding through: †¢ Building awareness of cultural differences. †¢ Educating the employees on the various strengths and limitations of different cultures within the workplace †¢ Educating the employees on the Building skills the impact of cultural differences within the workplace †¢ Educating the employees on various adaptive behaviors that could help them to realize valuable results within a setting with cultural differences. †¢ Building unity and consistency through team working †¢ Developing a shared understanding and vision between the employees †¢ Establishing effective communication channels amongst the employees to facilitate quality exchange of ideas between themselves †¢ Establishing feedback mechanisms aimed at reviewing and improving the employee’s awareness of cultural differences. In addition, the managers need to come up with strategies that will enable the postal service to compete effectively. This will require them to actively develop: †¢ A shared understanding of the organization’s goals and objectives †¢ An acknowledgment of the significance of diversity in contributing towards expertise. †¢ A clear and shared comprehension of the role of professional pooling of skills and knowledge within the organization. Reference Trompenaars, F. , & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Global Business. New York: McGraw Hill.

The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 Essays

The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 Essays The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 Essay The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 Essay Tensions between the North and the South were building up prior to the Civil War as slavery became a heated issue between those two regions. Many abolitionist helped many slaves to secretly reach freedom in the North or Canada through the Underground Railroad. Southerners felt that former laws passed by the Congress were not followed as they were supposed to be, because of legal deficiencies. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was part of the Compromise of 1850 and required all citizens to help catch runaway slaves which often lived as free citizens in northern cities. The law made northerners feels like they were part of the slave system, and therefore they were upset by it. It was said that around 3,000 black already had fled to the North and Canada. Some of the fugitive slaves used the Underground Railroad to reach Canada. This was done by many anti-slavery Committees in the North that helped them escape. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was composed of ten sections and allowed the sla ve-owner to bring an alleged fugitive before a special officer, a newly created federal commissioner, and use testimony of white witnesses or an affidavit from a court in a slavery state to prove ownership. However, northerners thought that the law was an attack on states rights. Slaveholders could enter their territory, look up for slaves, capture them and then return with them without process of law. This made the northerners angry. On the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 the Congress had active roles in ensuring retrieval of escaped slaves. Federal marshals also were enjoined to help recapture slaves, under $1000 penal fines. If a runaway escaped while in a marshals custody, the marshal had to give up the slaves full value to the owner. As in southern courts, slaves could not testify against whites. It was against the law for the slave to testify on his own behalf or request a jury trial. The federal c